The following article has been excerpted from Smart Kids with Learning Difficulties. This book is an engaging must-read for any parent, educator, or counselor of smart kids who face learning difficulties. The authors, who have more than 20 years experience working with and advocating for gifted and learning disabled children, provide useful, practical advice for helping smart kids with learning challenges succeed in school. Topics covered in the book include identifying and recognizing gifted/learning disabled students, what the law says about this population, planning and developing accommodations that empower these students, what works and doesn't work in the classroom, tools and checklists to build supportive learning environments, and the roles and responsibilities of parents, students, and school personnel.

Chapter 1

Who Are Smart Kids With Learning Difficulties?

by Rich Weinfeld, Linda Barnes-Robinson, Sue Jeweler, & Betty Roffman Shevitz

Some kids struggle. Their backgrounds, socioeconomic conditions, strengths and needs, abilities and disabilities, and their journey through life may vary, but they all struggle with learning. Some, as the following vignettes show, win the struggle and become successful individuals who make extraordinary contributions to the world.

He was from an upper-middle-class family. His mother was musically inclined and his father was an engineer. He was a very quiet child who did not speak until age 3. He hated school and disliked authority. He did poorly with rote learning. His teachers said he was a slow learner who would never amount to anything. Later, he became interested in science, math, and electrical engineering, but failed the exam for entry into an engineering program. Because of his interest in abstract and mathematical thought, he was interested in becoming a teacher. However, he believed he lacked imagination and practical ability. His name was Albert Einstein, the famous mathematician and physics genius.

She came from a socially prominent family. Her father was an alcoholic and she lived with her maternal grandparents. She had little affection for her mother who called her “Granny” because of her appearance. She was sickly, bedridden, hospitalized often, and wore a back brace due to a spinal defect. She bit her nails, had phobias, was shy, felt rejected and ugly, craved praise and attention, was insecure, and had deep feelings of inadequacy. A daydreamer, she often preferred to be isolated. After many years in school, she began to exhibit leadership qualities. She proved to be altruistic and wanted to help the elderly and poor. Her name was Eleanor Roosevelt, the famous reformer, humanitarian, and philanthropist.

He was the youngest of eight children and was of Cherokee descent. His father was a successful rancher and banker. His parents wanted him to be a minister, but he wanted to perform in a circus. He was well-coordinated, but careless in his personal hygiene. Although he excelled in history and social studies, he received poor grades in school, did not complete his work, and was expelled. His special skills included a sense of humor and recitation. His name was Will Rogers, the famous entertainer, orator, and nominee for President of the United States.

She came from a low-income family. She had two sisters; her mother was a domestic worker and her father was a minister. She was overweight, and later developed multiple sclerosis. A very quiet child, she had a certified emotional breakdown and was temporarily removed from school. However, she possessed a sense of humor, was charismatic, eloquent, humble, and a leader. Ambitious and hardworking, her name was Barbara Jordan, the famous Congresswoman and orator.

He came from a middle class family of seven children. His father was a carpenter. He had an enlarged head at birth and was not able to talk until he was almost 4 years old. He was enrolled in school 2 years late due to scarlet fever and respiratory infections. He lost his hearing and had a high-pitched voice. His attendance in school was poor. He was stubborn, aloof, shy, self-centered, and disengaged with the learning process, and he did not seem to care about school. One teacher said that his brains were addled, even though he had an excellent memory, read well, displayed perseverance, asked questions, and was a good problem solver. He liked to build things and wanted to earn money. His name was Thomas Edison, the famous inventor.

Born to an undistinguished family, he moved often with his father, sister, and brother. His mother died when he was small and his father, a farmer, remarried. He was once kicked in the head by a horse and thought dead. He had Marfan syndrome, a genetic disease that affects connective tissues, including those around the heart, skeleton, and nervous system. He briefly attended school and was considered lazy. He excelled at sports, was an avid reader, and liked practical jokes. He was a good debater and thinker and also liked to argue. Interested in sales, he wanted to open his own business. His name was Abraham Lincoln, the former President of the United States.

She was a fatherless child whose mother struggled financially. Suffering from dyslexia, she could not read, write, or do mathematical problems. Teachers described her as a class clown. She left school at age 16. Her name is Cherilyn Sarkisian LaPiere—Cher—the famous entertainer.

His teachers viewed him as bright, but inattentive and lazy. He was viewed by some of his classmates as crazy or “retarded.” Each day, in elementary school, as his turn to read aloud approached, he went to the bathroom, where he got sick to his stomach and wished he would die. Unfortunately, when he returned to the room, it was always still his turn to read aloud. In sixth grade, when assigned a composition, he dictated an outstanding composition to his mother, because his poor handwriting and spelling interfered with his work production. He was accused of plagiarism, and became so disconsolate he dropped out of school for a time. In college, the student met with each of his professors prior to each semester. He described to them his love of literature and his passion for writing. He also described his need to take periodic breaks during class due to his Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), his need for copies of a peer’s notes, his need to do all major writing on the word processor due to his written language disability, and to have books on tape because he read on a seventh grade level. The professors invariably agreed to work closely with him. Jonathan Mooney graduated from Brown University with honors and a 4.0 average. Now an inspirational speaker and author, he shares his experiences and the positive impact of appropriate adaptations and accommodations in his book, Learning Outside the Lines (2000).

These are profiles of famous people who were smart and overcame their learning difficulties. Think about all our kids sitting in classrooms today who are smart, but struggle in school. Their school experiences may mirror those profiled above. Unfortunately, they may not have the resilience to succeed despite their circumstances. Imagine the impact if all of these kids were given the tools that could ease their struggle, and the contributions they could make if they were given the tools to succeed.

Population

So, who are these students and what characteristics can we look for to identify them? Bright students who are not reaching their potential present themselves in different ways, depending on what is contributing to their lack of achievement. Sometimes their difficulty in school is due to a documented learning disability. Sometimes it may be due to a health impairment such as ADHD. At other times, they may be students with neurological differences, such as Autism Spectrum Disorders, that provide challenges to their learning. In addition to the more typical learning disabilities like spelling and writing difficulties, organization, word retrieval, and processing speed, some students struggle with nonverbal learning disabilities, those characterized by problems in visual-spatial-organizational, tactile-perceptual, psychomotor, and/or nonverbal problem-solving skills (see Table 1) that adversely affect their academic performance with rigorous instruction.

Despite their outstanding abilities, smart students with learning difficulties often have problems with the physical production of schoolwork, and with the written output, organization, memory, and reading school requires. At other times, these kids seem to be average students because their brightness and their learning difficulties are masking one another. There are also students who, despite a lack of any documented disability, are underachieving, or not performing to their potential. These students are often the most difficult to understand and reach, because they do not fall into a neat category with specific instructional skills that can be addressed. Understanding who these students are, the struggles they face, how to best address their needs, and the roles parents and educators play in their lives is essential if smart kids with learning problems are to develop intellectually, socially, and emotionally. Before you become actively involved in helping your child succeed, it is important for you to have a common understanding of the definitions and terms used in both the field of gifted education and the realm of special education. The following definitions will help facilitate communication between yourself and school personnel and clarify what groups of students we are referring to in this book. This knowledge will contribute to your effectiveness and efficiency in advocating for appropriate programming and identification decisions for your child.

Definition of Gifted and Talented Students

A recent federal education policy, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), defines gifted and talented students as

students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities. (2001, p. 544)

In addition, the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act (1988) provides us with another good definition of gifted and talented students as:

Those children and youth with outstanding talent [who] perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment. These outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor. (Title IV, Sec. 4101)

Definition of Learning Disabilities

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was first signed into law in 1990. It was later updated in 2004. This legislation provides a good definition of learning disabilities as defined by federal law.

In general, the term specific learning disability indicates a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language. This includes spoken or written language. In addition, federal law notes that the disability may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations (IDEA, 1990).

Disorders considered to be learning disabilities include conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injuries, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia (a language impairment caused by brain damage). However, federal law does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantages (IDEA, 1990).

Definition of Gifted and Talented/Learning-Disabled Students

Those students who possess an outstanding gift or talent and are capable of high performance, but who also have a learning disability that makes some aspect of academic achievement difficult are considered to be gifted and talented and learning disabled (GT/LD). Often called twice-exceptional, these students meet the definitions for both gifted and talented and learning-disabled students.

Definition of Gifted and Talented/ADHD Students

Some students possess an outstanding gift or talent and are capable of high performance, but also have been identified as having Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The criteria used by a trained professional in diagnosing ADHD is included here; however, this should not be used to diagnose your child, but should simply be considered as a guide to pinpointing students who may have problems attending to tasks.

The following definition is taken from the American Psychiatric Association’s (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV). The DSM-IV is the standard reference system used by mental health professionals and physicians for diagnosis of disorders. The DSM-IV defines a person with ADHD as displaying the following characteristics:

1. Person aligns with either A or B:
   1. Six or more of the following symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months to a point that is disruptive and inappropriate for developmental level:
      1. Inattention
         1. Often does not give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities.
         2. Often has trouble keeping attention on tasks or play activities.
         3. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.
         4. Often does not follow instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions).
         5. Often has trouble organizing activities.
         6. Often avoids, dislikes, or doesn’t want to do things that take a lot of mental effort for a long period of time (such as schoolwork or homework).
         7. Often loses things needed for tasks and activities (e.g., toys, school assignments, pencils, books, or tools).
         8. Is often easily distracted.
         9. Is often forgetful in daily activities.
   2. Six or more of the following symptoms of hyperactivity or impulsivity have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for developmental level:
      1. Hyperactivity
         1. Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat.
         2. Often gets up from seat when remaining in seat is expected.
         3. Often runs about or climbs when and where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may feel very restless).
         4. Often has trouble playing or enjoying leisure activities quietly.
         5. Is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor.”
         6. Often talks excessively.
      2. Impulsivity
         1. Often blurts out answers before questions have been finished.
         2. Often has trouble waiting one’s turn.
         3. Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games).
2. Some symptoms that cause impairment were present before age 7 years.
3. Some impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings (e.g., at school/work and at home).
4. There must be clear evidence of significant impairment in social, school, or work functioning.
5. The symptoms do not happen only during the course of a pervasive developmental disorder, schizophrenia, or other psychotic disorder. The symptoms are not better accounted for by another mental disorder (e.g., mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). (APA, 2000, p. 83–85)

Based on these criteria, the DSM identifies three types of ADHD: (a) ADHD, Combined Type, which is when both criteria 1A and 1B have been displayed for the past 6 months; (b) ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type, which occurs when criterion 1A is met, but criterion 1B has not been met for the past 6 months; and (c) ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type, which occurs when criterion 1B is met, but criterion 1A has not been displayed for the past 6 months (APA, 2000).

Diagnosis of ADHD in gifted students can be very difficult, and should only be done by a trained professional. Some of the characteristics used to identify students who have ADHD are also characteristics of gifted students in general, gifted students who have other disabilities (including learning disabilities), and bright underachieving students. However, many gifted students, with or without other disabilities, also are impacted by ADHD. Appropriate diagnosis by a mental health professional or doctor is crucial. The identification criteria described above require that some symptoms be present before age 7, and that some impairment is present in two or more settings; this will certainly help define the existence of ADHD as a disorder separate from the child’s gifts or other learning difficulties.

Our experience has shown that some students who appear to have ADHD will no longer demonstrate the same symptoms, or the same symptoms to the extent that they would be considered a disability, when they are given an appropriate educational environment. On the other hand, it has been our experience that some students will continue to demonstrate symptoms of ADHD even when the best practices of working with twice-exceptional students are in place. These students may need both medical intervention and behavioral strategies that directly address these attention issues. Parents and teachers, keep in mind that all diagnoses and any medical interventions should only be made by a trained psychiatrist, medical doctor, or other mental health professional.

Colleen Willard-Holt (1999) identified the following questions to ask when you think that your child may be showing signs of having ADHD:

• Could the behaviors be responses to inappropriate placement, insufficient challenge, or lack of intellectual peers?
• Is the child able to concentrate when he is interested in the activity?
• Have any curricular modifications been made in an attempt to change his inappropriate behaviors?
• Has the child been interviewed? What are his or her feelings about the behaviors?
• Does the child feel out of control? Do the parents perceive the child as being out of control?
• Do the behaviors occur at certain times of the day, during certain activities, with certain teachers, or in certain environments? (¶ 12)

Answering these questions will help you begin the process of determining if a disability such as ADHD may exist in the smart kid you are concerned about.

Definition of Gifted Student With Asperger’s Syndrome or Autism

Gifted students with autism or Asperger’s Syndrome are students who possess an outstanding gift or talent and are capable of high performance and also have an autistic disorder. Again, the American Psychiatric Association (2000) presents a definition and criteria for autistic disorders in its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV. As with the information regarding Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, this information is presented here only as a guide to help you determine whether you may need to seek the advice or recommendations of a trained mental health professional or doctor for your child.

The following is the criteria established by the DSM-IV for persons with autism:

1. Person displays a total of six (or more) items from criteria 1, 2, and 3, with at least two from criterion 1, and one each from criteria 2 and 3:
   1. Person displays a qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
      1. marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors, such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction;
      2. failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level;
      3. a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest); or
      4. lack of social or emotional reciprocity.
   2. Person displays qualitative impairments in communication, as manifested by at least one of the following:
      1. delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime);
      2. in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others;
      3. stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language; or
      4. lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level.
   3. Person displays restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities as manifested by at least one of the following:
      1. encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus;
      2. apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals;
      3. stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting or complex whole-body movements); or
      4. persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
2. Person displays delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play.
3. The disturbance is not better accounted for by Rett’s disorder or childhood disintegrative disorder. (APA, 2000, p. 77)

The following are some of the criteria noted in children with Asperger’s Syndrome (as defined by APA):

1. Person displays qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
   1. marked impairments in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body posture, and gestures to regulate social interaction;
   2. failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level;
   3. a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interest, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest to other people); or
   4. lack of social or emotional reciprocity.
2. Person displays restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:
   1. encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus;
   2. apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals;
   3. stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements); or
   4. persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
3. The disturbance causes clinically significant impairments in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
4. There is no clinically significant general delay in language (e.g., single words used by age 2, communicative phrases used by age 3)
5. There is no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or in the development of age-appropriate self-help skills, adaptive behavior (other than in social interaction), and curiosity about the environment in childhood.
6. Criteria are not met for another specific pervasive developmental disorder or schizophrenia. (APA, 2000, p. 77)

While all students who are diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome are high-functioning autistic students, not all high-functioning autistic students have Asperger’s Syndrome. As opposed to other high-functioning autistic students, Asperger’s students, by definition of the APA, do not experience a clinically significant general delay in language. However, an individual with Asperger’s Syndrome may experience difficulty in understanding nonverbal, inferential, or social language, such as irony and humor.

It is important for you and your child to understand his or her own strengths and weaknesses. Gifted students with autistic disorders, including those with Asperger’s Syndrome, generally have difficulties in the following areas:

• communication,
• social skills,
• range of interests,
• sensory integration, and
• behavior.

In addition, the following deficits are commonly observed in gifted students with autistic disorders, including those with Asperger’s Syndrome:

• trouble focusing on what’s important,
• generalization of knowledge,
• difficulty transitioning to different activities,
• difficulty with time concepts, and
• atypical/uneven development.

On the other hand, students with autistic disorders, including Asperger’s Syndrome, may demonstrate great strengths, including:

• advanced reading of words (but not necessarily the same level of comprehension),
• ability to hyperfocus on an activity, and
• ability to memorize lists and facts.

Definition of Bright Underachieving Students

Many kids are smart and underachieving and could benefit from the same interventions that should be given to GT/LD kids, but they may not be identified as either gifted and talented or learning disabled. All of the strategies discussed later in this book can be used to help bright, underachieving students succeed in school.

Researchers have described the following three general themes when classifying gifted, underachieving students (Reis & McCoach, 2000):

• a discrepancy between potential (or ability) and performance (or achievement),
• a discrepancy between predicted achievement and actual achievement, and
• a failure to develop or utilize latent potential without reference to external criteria and without defining or measuring potential.

Like GT/LD students, bright, underachieving students typically demonstrate outstanding abilities in either the verbal or visual-spatial area. Despite these outstanding abilities, they typically have problems producing or completing schoolwork, particularly in the area of written output. Organization, memory, and reading also may be significantly impacted. There may be a discrepancy between what the student is able to conceptualize and what he actually produces.

The term underachieving has a negative connotation that does not fit some of these students. A student with a documented learning disability who is also gifted and talented may take exception to being labeled as underachieving, especially in cases when it is her disability that is impacting her level of productivity, not a lack of motivation.

Characteristics

Students with gifts who also have learning challenges that affect their performance are often misunderstood and sometimes regarded as lazy or apathetic. Although the characteristics of these students vary greatly from student to student, there are some general commonalities.

These kids are in every classroom. They may look like other kids in the class, appearing to be average learners, as their strengths and weaknesses cancel out one another, or these kids may stand out because of their poor behavior, lack of achievement, or disorganization. Smart kids with learning difficulties can be highly verbal, expressing great insights and knowledge, yet they may never complete their written work. Or, these students may contribute very little verbal expression to the class, yet they excel in hands-on activities. They may be reading below grade level and unable to remember simple directions. They may be holding it together in school, but falling apart at home. Smart students with learning challenges are likely to be experiencing problems related to some or all of the stumbling blocks that are described in detail later in this book. Table 2 may present characteristics that look very familiar to you; it provides a list of many of the characteristics found in smart kids who struggle in school due to learning problems. You can use it to help you understand your child or student better.

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References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Higgins, D., Baldwin, L., & Pereles, D. (2000). Comparison of characteristics of gifted students with or without disabilities. Unpublished manuscript.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. §1401 et seq. (1990).

Mooney, J., & Cole, D. (2000). Learning outside the lines: Two Ivy League students with learning disabilities and ADHD give you the tools for academic success and educational revolution. New York: Fireside.

No Child Left Behind Act, 20 U.S.C. §6301 (2001).

Reis, S. M., & McCoach, D. B. (2000). The underachievement of gifted students: What do we know and where do we go? Gifted Child Quarterly, 44, 152–170.

Title IV, Part B. [Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act of 1988], Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1988, 20 U.S.C. §3061 et seq.

Willard-Holt, C. (1999, May). Dual exceptionalities. ERIC EC Digest #574. Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education.