The following article has been excerpted from Encouraging Your Child’s Science Talent. Parents of children with precocious science ability will find the suggestions in Encouraging Your Child’s Science Talent engaging, encouraging, and practical advice.

The family is the basic unit of society, but in a highly organized society like ours, community life is also tremendously important. As your child gets older, your community and society at large will influence your child more strongly and more directly. How can you make this interaction between your child and the outside world as constructive as possible?

School provides the most important set of experiences your child has away from home. Here he or she learns not only basic living tools such as reading, mathematics, and science, but also basic training in attitudes and work habits that may last a lifetime.

Unfortunately, research has firmly established that interest in science generally drops as children progress through school (Simpson & Oliver, 1985), and this drop is particularly dramatic during the middle and high school years. It doesn’t need to be this way. Your knowledge and a friendly, positive interest in your child’s school can make a difference.

This chapter offers advice, based on relevant research and experience, about how to work effectively with schools to ensure that your child’s educational needs are met, particularly in the area of science. Although each individual situation is different, the general approaches presented here have been effective in a wide variety of circumstances. If you have tried each of these approaches and have been unsuccessful, Chapter 5 presents some alternatives to traditional schooling.

The typical public school curriculum is quite limited in the scope of science courses it offers to students, and this is another reason why parents often must take the initiative in offering science enrichment to their scientifically talented child.

Typically, the elementary science curriculum focuses on the study of the environment—an appropriate, readily accessible area of study for young children. Many schools use vegetable gardens, butterfly gardens, nature trails, and similar outdoor activities to develop student interest; schools in more urban settings often keep fish tanks, terrariums, and other microhabitats to expose children to science. However, the development and use of these resources is quite dependent on the individual teacher. Within a single school, some teachers may incorporate scientific learning consistently, while other teachers hardly use the available resources at all.

Furthermore, some schools integrate science activities into language arts or social studies curricula rather than giving them a dedicated time in the school day. In some cases, the lack of a dedicated time can lead to inadequate coverage of science topics. In other cases, state standards may mandate such treatment, particularly when test scores in English and math are strongly emphasized. There is wide variation in the quality and quantity of elementary science instruction, and many teachers at this level seem to feel uncomfortable teaching scientific topics. You may need to discuss these issues with local school personnel to determine the most suitable placement for your child. Table 9 discusses some positive steps you can take to resolve some of the issues you may face regarding your child’s science education in elementary school.

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Schools generally group students into either middle schools (usually grades 6–8) or junior high schools (often grades 7–9). Although these terms have some implications for how a school is structured, for this book I have used the term middle school to refer collectively to all students in these grade ranges.

Middle school science curricula vary widely, but generally include the equivalent of one year of life science (biology), one year of earth science (primarily geology), and one year of physical science (a combination of physics and chemistry). Some middle school curricula present each of these subjects sequentially. Others use a spiral approach, teaching similar material drawn from all three fields in a continuous, integrated fashion while going into greater depth about the fields during each successive year.

At the middle school level, students generally encounter a full-time science teacher for the first time. This can be a critical juncture in terms of awakening or killing a child’s interest in science. Young people of this age are often critical, quickly judge adults, and are prone to equate a subject with the teacher who presents it.

For the advanced student, this teacher can present a valuable resource, being an admired person in authority who can answer most of the student’s persistent questions about scientific topics. However, if the science teacher is poorly prepared, careless, or frequently makes mistakes in class, problems may arise. The able student at this age will readily pick up on factual errors, but may not yet have developed the social skills to point out the teacher’s error in a tactful manner. In response, some teachers may become defensive, antagonistic, or passive-aggressive toward bright students. Do your homework; talk to other parents. Take the time to ensure that your child is assigned to a teacher worthy of becoming an inspiration and continuing mentor. Table 10, and the following paragraphs, presents some of the other problems children may face in their science education in middle school, and positive steps parents can take to overcome these problems.

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Peer pressure against science interests, particularly for girls, also comes into play especially strongly at this age (Talton & Simpson, 1985). For many children, science comes to be seen as something elitist, difficult, and exclusionary; in response, it is shunned, and sometimes those children who continue to display an interest in science are rejected or ignored by their classmates. As a parent, you can help by being proactive. Even before your child reaches middle school, help him or her develop a wide circle of friendships with others who are like-minded and scientifically inclined.

Recognize that the science offerings at your child’s school may have been implemented in response to the requirements of standardized testing. In accordance with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), beginning in 2007, all states must test student science achievement every year, and must test students at least once in grades 3–5, 6–9, and 10–12.

An unfortunate consequence is that teachers may use these tests—and administrative pressure arising from them—as excuses to base their instruction entirely on textbooks, disregarding long-known and well-documented research (e.g., see Bybee & Sund, 1990; Inhelder & Piaget, 1958) that indicates that most children of this age are able to think hypothetically only when given concrete examples. Many teachers shun inquiry-based instruction because they are uncomfortable with activities that may not have predictable results. Likewise, they hesitate to venture outside the classroom; in various surveys more than 80% of seventh and eighth graders have reported never going on field trips with their science classes. (This problem is not a new one; unfortunately, if anything, the numbers are substantially higher in today’s climate of shrinking budgets and escalating liability lawsuits plaguing schools. For an example of one such survey, see Mullis & Jenkins, 1988.)

An additional problem with this reliance on textbook-based instruction is that many of the science textbooks schools use are poorly written or even incorrect. A study conducted by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (Roseman, Kesidou, Stern, & Caldwell, 1999) found that none of the middle grade science texts they reviewed were adequate. Most middle school science texts cover too much material in too little depth, the study concluded, inadvertently introducing errors by covering topics too briefly and superficially. Worse, the texts often feature classroom activities that are not particularly relevant or helpful for teaching students about the underlying scientific ideas they are trying to learn (Hubisz, 2003).

Although there have been some improvements since these studies were conducted, the textbook replacement cycle is long, and some schools still may be using these poor materials. As a result, students may learn material that is incorrect, or not learn what they are supposed to know. If you as a parent or your child’s older siblings have any scientific background at all, you can help your child immensely by being particularly attentive to the science learning of children during the middle grades.

What should you do if you find errors or problems? Your first inclination, and probably that of your scientifically advanced child, as well, may be to point out these errors to the teacher. Although a good teacher will recognize the limitations of any textbook and will turn errors in the book into an opportunity for student learning, not all teachers will possess these skills. Some teachers may view you as a troublemaker and/or your child’s quest for truth as disrespectful toward their authority, with negative consequences for your child.

Consider other alternatives, such as turning this into an opportunity for your child to correspond with the textbook publisher. Help him or her write an effective letter, documenting the reasons why the textbook material seems incomplete, misleading, or inaccurate. Most people are unaware that publishers usually will take such correspondence quite seriously, and forward it to the book authors for comment, then respond to the letter writer. In other cases, a publisher will not reply directly, but still take action to correct the error in the next edition. Remind your child that the response may take a while to arrive, because it travels through several channels.

By taking this route, you’ve not only averted a possible confrontation between your child and the teacher, but you’ve turned the experience into a valuable lesson on effective communication and appropriate positive action for change. Instead of focusing on the teacher and the error, your child is encouraged to focus on the altruistic motive of helping publishers—who, after all, have done their best with a very intricate job—to present the correct information to other students in the future.

High school is in many ways just a ratcheted-up version of middle school, and in fact some school systems still combine junior and senior high schools into a single entity. Though the students may be slightly more mature, they face essentially the same pitfalls as they did in middle school, with a few more added on top.

At the high school level, usually grades 9–12, science courses in the curriculum expand, but to a degree that seems to depend largely on school size. In smaller high schools and in rural areas, choices such as distance learning may provide the only options for study beyond a limited handful of in-school courses. Teachers in these settings may be required to teach several different courses at once, or even teach courses outside their areas of expertise or certification. Table 11 presents some of the additional problems students face in their high school science education.

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Larger schools usually offer a wider variety of science classes, giving students greater opportunities to pursue their individual interests in particular fields of study. Core courses such as physical science, biology, and chemistry are usually available at two or even three levels of difficulty, depending on school and community needs. Physics, ecology, and human anatomy may be available to advanced students. Many top students may take two or three science classes each year, graduating with seven or more science courses on their transcript. Advanced Placement classes (see below) are increasingly common, offering students the chance to do accelerated work and receive college credit if their final examination scores in the subject are high enough.

Still, science is a huge field of endeavor, and dozens of scientific disciplines are rarely if ever made available to students. The highly able student whose interests lie in entomology, hydrology, or archaeology would hardly be aware that these fields exist if he were limited to the content of the school science curriculum. Some enlightened schools will allow a student to work independently with an interested teacher to pursue such interests; others may allow joint enrollment with a nearby college or university. However, many highly able students may not be able to pursue either of these possibilities. In these cases, options such as distance learning and special summer programs can be just what the student needs to round out the coursework available in school. These possibilities are discussed in further detail later in this book.

Advanced Placement (AP) courses originally were designed several decades ago to make college-level coursework available to the most able high school students. In recent years, AP course enrollment nationwide has risen dramatically. Today more schools offer these courses than ever before, and increasing numbers of students in each school take advantage of the opportunity AP classes present. At the end of a year of intensive study, AP students pay a fee for the opportunity to take a nationally administered exam in the subject. Students making scores of 3, 4, or 5 on the tests’ five-point scale can receive college credit for a semester or even a year of introductory coursework, depending on their score, the subject, and the particular university’s policies.

Parents generally like the AP program. Unlike options such as dual enrollment, AP courses place students with others of similar age and maturity, and do not require students to leave the high school campus. Furthermore, AP courses are offered within the regular school and generally on the regular school schedule. The AP examination fees are sometimes paid by the school or district to encourage all qualified students to take the exams. However, even if parents have to pay these fees out of pocket, the cost is much less than the tuition costs students would otherwise pay in college for an equivalent number of credits.

As the AP program has grown, having taken AP classes has become increasingly important in college admission. Nearly all applicants to competitive universities will have been successful in several AP courses. Because Advanced Placement classes are much more rigorous than regular high school classes, a B grade in an AP class is often weighted to be equivalent to an A in a regular course when schools calculate student grade point averages.

Students usually take Advanced Placement classes in grades 10–12, although some exceptional students have been successful as early as the eighth grade. Some schools make AP classes available to all interested students. Others have established prerequisites, such as having achieved an A or B in a previous advanced science class. Check with your child’s school well ahead of time to be aware of what its requirements are.

If your child is interested in a science field that has no corresponding AP course at your high school, do a little investigation. Sometimes different high schools within a district may offer different AP courses. It may be possible to arrange transportation to another school to take the course there. Alternatively, independent study may be possible. The Advanced Placement program allows students to pay the fee and take the course examination even without enrollment in a formal AP class.

Does it seem likely that your child will be a candidate for advanced work in high school? Get ready early, because improper timing of prerequisites can trip up these plans. For the scientifically inclined student, two courses are particularly apt to cause problems—algebra and biology.

Getting into the top tier of high school classes often requires that a student has successfully completed Algebra I in the eighth grade—one year ahead of the usual schedule. In many schools, Algebra I is a prerequisite for advanced physical science, which is in turn a prerequisite for advanced chemistry. For example, in the school where I taught, advanced students took physical science as 9th graders, then biology, then advanced chemistry as 11th graders. Advanced Placement chemistry was only available to students who had already completed advanced chemistry, which meant that most students could only take this class in their final year of high school. Students who had taken regular rather than advanced physical science were strongly discouraged from enrolling in advanced chemistry, and the average-level chemistry course was not accepted as a prerequisite for the AP chemistry course. To complicate matters further, the school labeled all of these courses “college preparatory,” a practice that could trip up students and parents who may be unaware of the differences between the two levels. Advanced Placement classes in physics and calculus (both of which may be available as 2-year sequences, as well) operate in a similar manner and also depend heavily on the completion of Algebra I in the eighth grade.

Some schools, however, do not offer algebra to eighth graders. A helpful alternative in this case is to swap the student’s enrollment in the sciences, so he or she takes biology in the ninth grade and defers physical science until tenth grade. This will allow your child an additional year to refine mathematical reasoning skills and complete Algebra I before enrolling in the math-intensive physical sciences classes. Another potential option for the qualified student is to take Algebra I as a summer course; if your school or another does not offer it locally, look for it as a widely available offering through the regional talent search programs.

Two nationally recognized science standards outline what educators believe students should know, understand, and be able to do in the sciences over the course of a public school education.

Although these two sets of standards were developed as separate initiatives, they share about 90% of their content in common. The Project 2061 standards are more comprehensive and have more supporting material available in the form of printed materials, online resources, and professional development opportunities for teachers. At present, most state science learning standards have some basis in these standards, as well.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) has developed the Project 2061 standards, named for the year that Comet Halley will next return to Earth. These standards have been in existence since 1989. New supporting programs and materials are added regularly, including Science for All Americans (Rutherford & Ahlgren, 1990), Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS, 1993), and The Dialogue on Early Childhood Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education (AAAS, 1999). These and other related resources are available both in print and online (http://www.project2061.org/publications/toolWeb.htm) as searchable documents; they are also available in Spanish.

The organization of the Project 2061 standards is presented in Science for All Americans. Taken as a whole, the book effectively describes what scientific literacy looks like. The companion volume, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, specifies how students can progress toward achieving this goal, including what students should know and be capable of doing when they have completed so-called benchmark grade levels (2, 5, 8, and 12). More recently, Designs for Science Literacy (AAAS, 2001) offers guidance to teachers and others who are developing science curricula.

The other relevant set of standards is the National Science Education Standards, published by the National Academy of Sciences in 1996, and available now online (http://books.nap.edu/html/nses/html/overview.html#content). Hundreds of people, from teachers and parents to scientists, engineers, and government officials, cooperated to develop the NSES. Major corporations, foundations, and organizations joined in a massive effort to combine the results of research, earlier reform efforts, and personal insights to produce a broad consensus about the elements of science education they believed would permit all students to achieve their scientific potential. Table 12 provides a list of some of these elements NSES encourages students to learn.

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These standards continue to influence and guide U.S. science education, and have encouraged many states to mount similar efforts. Organized within eight categories, they address content that should be understood or abilities that should be developed through science instruction in grades K–4, 5–8, and 9–12.

As the parent of a scientifically talented child, you will want to make the effort to become familiar with national science standards. The Project 2061 materials are extensive, yet are not difficult reading. Read Science for All Americans to familiarize yourself with the overall goals that your child should strive toward in math, science, and technology learning. However, the Benchmarks volume may be more useful in helping you to evaluate your child’s current status and the yearly progress he or she is making toward these learning goals.

Your child’s science teacher, science department head, or other school administrator should be able to discuss the Project 2061 materials with you, and should be able to explain to your satisfaction how these standards and goals inform the classroom instruction your child receives. These materials have been used in science teacher preparation programs for many years, and they represent up-to-date thinking about what effective science instruction should look like. If it does not appear that your child’s teacher is aware of these resources, you will want to find out why.

Keep in mind that the Benchmarks book is not intended to serve as a curriculum; rather, they describe the outcomes that locally selected science curricula should produce. In fact, the Benchmarks book is designed to allow and even lead toward a greater diversity of science curricula than currently are used in teaching science. Designs for Science Literacy is intended to offer guidance in curriculum development, but this book also does not prescribe any particular approach. This distinction is quite important—Project 2061’s support for the use of a variety of curricula can lend support in advocating for appropriately differentiated curriculum and instruction for children.

In addition to their impact on what your child learns in school, you may wish to use the Project 2061 guidelines to direct your child’s learning at home, supplementing or even replacing the education received in school (see the section on homeschooling in Chapter 5). The AAAS materials suggest general directions in which to extend students’ science learning. The Benchmarks book classifies concepts by general topic (e.g., “Processes That Shape the Earth”), and further divide these into grade range categories (such as grades 3–5). At this level, Benchmarks suggests, students may “build devices for demonstrating how wind and water shape the land and how forces on materials can make wrinkles, folds, and faults” (p. 72).

If your child does not seem to be doing activities like this in school, you may wish to look into some of the many science curriculum Web sites online to find activities in these areas to conduct with your child at home. Be aware that the Benchmarks book describes a minimum level of knowledge, not a maximum. These standards should be used as a starting point for extending learning in whatever additional directions interest the child.

Over the past several decades, the depth of science instruction has suffered as public school science textbooks have added more and more breadth of material. More material means that there is less opportunity to examine any particular issue in detail. This trend may hold especially true for students with some prior knowledge of a science subject, because a common classroom response to students who finish quickly is simply to give them more of the same until the rest of the class has caught up. Breadth of knowledge is important, but it is becoming increasingly evident that a deep understanding of a few issues may be more useful in the long run than a superficial knowledge of many. Long-term independent projects and competitions (see Chapter 6) and other classroom-based activities can offer a variety of effective alternatives to providing additional worksheets or other superficial activities.

Despite the slightly hysterical tone that pervades the popular press, schools generally do a good to adequate job for most average-ability students. However, they are often less successful with those students at the far ends of the ability range.

Parents of children with unusual gifts often report that interactions with the school system are a source of frustration in their lives. Prominent reports such as A Nation Deceived: How Schools Hold Back America’s Brightest Students (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004) and others (Delisle, 2003) illustrate the source of much of this tension—many schools do not do a good job of educating their best and brightest students. The situation appears to have worsened with recent trends that favor placing students of all ability levels within the same classroom. Teachers with appropriate training can still provide for the varied needs that result from these mixed ability classes (Johnsen, Haensly, Ryser, & Ford, 2002), but such training may not be readily available in every area.

As a scientifically talented student, your child can seem to be in a strange educational limbo. You routinely find that some of the politicians and administrators who hold power over educational decisions affecting your child act as though special talents are such an advantage that no concessions are needed. Others view the talented child as one who doesn’t fit into the mainstream and is therefore analogous to (and sometimes lumped in with) the child with physical or mental disabilities. This viewpoint underlies the preemption of the word exceptional, which was once used to mean outstanding, but is now routinely applied to those who have disabilities.

If one holds the latter view, it is worth being aware that all students with disabilities are guaranteed a free and appropriate public education under the terms of several federal laws. These laws include the Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and most recently, the Family Educational Right to Privacy Act (FERPA).

The federal government appears to support the idea of special services for students with unusual abilities. Federal regulations describe gifted students as those that:

. . . perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment. These children and youth exhibit high performance capability in intellectual, creative, and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity, or excel in specific academic fields. They require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the schools. (U.S. Department of Education, 1993, p. 26)

But, while this definition states that these students “require services,” federal regulations stop short of mandating that schools provide such services to these bright children. State-level regulations therefore bear the responsibility for supporting or ignoring the needs of these students. Because appropriate services cost money, only a handful of states have adopted legislation that both mandates gifted education services and funds them adequately.

Even if your child is not served in a gifted program, you should make every effort to familiarize yourself with the regulations in your state. State gifted associations usually publicize this information, and state departments of education will also present this information on their Web sites. A list of state gifted associations is available online from the National Association for Gifted Children (see http://www.nagc.org). A comparative list of state policies, maintained by the Davidson Institute for Talent Development, is also available online (see http://www.geniusdenied.com/Policies/StatePolicy.aspx).

Among school personnel, involved parents often have a reputation as pushy or worse. Unfortunately, this perception often has its roots in teachers’ personal experiences. Do your best to counteract this negative stereotype.

Do everything you can to develop a good relationship with your child’s teachers and school administrators (Hertzog, 2003). If your other responsibilities permit it, spend time volunteering at your child’s school. There is a strong correlation between the time parents spend in schools and overall student achievement, so your assistance may improve the overall educational experience at the school, while also developing a positive relationship between you and the school personnel who work with your child.

Researcher Karen Rogers (2005) studied the factors that led to a successful implementation of individualized education plans for highly able students. She found that only about one in five families were successful in obtaining an individualized education plan for their high-ability child. However, these successful cases shared at least two of these factors:

(a) an experienced school administrator with several years on the job; (b) an administrator with a strong background in gifted education; (c) a rural school; (d) a small school; (e) a Montessori school; (f) a school without a reputation for being a “best practices” school; (g) a parent with good rapport in the school evidenced in mutual respect between school personnel and the family; and (h) a child with a more “extraordinary” level of intelligence (IQ>160). (Rogers, 2005, p. 16)

Take an active role in schoolwide activities to meet other committed parents, and simultaneously get to know other school personnel, all the while making a contribution to the education your child receives. Parent-teacher organizations, extracurricular clubs, and afterschool activities always can use more parental involvement. Parents who take part benefit by becoming more familiar with their child’s classmates and teachers, and possibly also by learning how to interact effectively with particular school personnel.

If there is an organization that supports the needs of gifted students, join it. Such organizations often vary in strength from one year to the next as particular parents move in and out of the group, but they offer your best source for learning what educational modifications have or have not been done for other children in the school your child attends.

By joining an advocacy group, you will strengthen its impact. As such groups gain members, their potential effectiveness increases not only by sheer numbers, but also because they are more likely to be able to work with school personnel over several years’ time. Members become familiar with school personnel, learn how the local schools are organized, and discover the best channels through which to affect change (Davidson Institute for Talent Development, 2005).

The staff of the Davidson Institute for Talent Development offers suggestions to help parent advocacy groups work effectively with schools. (See http://www.geniusdenied.com for examples.) The steps in the table at the end of this chapter are adapted from their materials (see Table 13).

Particular grades or even individual classes may also benefit from your attention. If you happen to have a particular area of expertise, teachers may be interested in having you talk with the class about it when they are studying a related topic. If you have your own business, you may be able to donate materials or labor the school needs. This not only strengthens the school and your relationship with it, but it may also give you a tax deduction.

Even if you cannot contribute much to the classroom directly, keep in mind that some approaches will be more or less successful than others when you interact with your child’s teachers. First and foremost, recognize that most people who become teachers do so because they want to make a difference in children’s lives. Teachers want to provide an appropriate environment to help children learn, and they have spent their professional lives learning how to do this well.

Treat teachers with the same respect you would accord other professionals, and be sure to recognize their commitment and expertise. Table 13 provides more tips for advocating effectively for your child’s education.

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American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy: Project 2061. New York: Oxford University Press.

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1999). Dialogue on early childhood science, mathematics, and technology education. New York: Oxford University Press.

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2001). Designs for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bybee, R. W., & Sund, R. B. (1990). Piaget for educators (2nd ed.). Prospect Heights, NJ: Waveland Press.

Colangelo, N., Assouline, S. G., & Gross, M. U. M. (2004). A nation deceived: How schools hold back America’s brightest students (Vols. 1 & 2). Iowa City: The Connie Belin & Jacqueline N. Blank International Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development.

Davidson Institute for Talent Development. (2005). How parent advocacy groups can make a difference: An interview with Christine Smith, Southlake Parents for Academic Excellence (SPACE). Retrieved March 24, 2005, from http://www.geniusdenied.com/articles/record.aspx?NavID=13_0&rid=13877

Delisle, J. R. (2003, November). Highly gifted, barely served: The legacy of inclusion. Paper presented at the 50th annual convention of the National Association for Gifted Children, Indianapolis, IN.

Hertzog, N. (2003). Advocacy: On the cutting edge. Gifted Child Quarterly, 47, 66–81.

Hubisz, J. L. (2003, May). Middle-school texts don’t make the grade. Physics Today, 50–54.

Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books.

Johnsen, S. K., Haensly, P. A., Ryser, G. R., & Ford, R. F. (2002). Changing general education classroom practices to adapt for gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 45–63.

Mullis, I. V. S., & Jenkins, L. B. (1988). The science report card. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

National Academy of Sciences. (1996). National science education standards. Retrieved December, 13, 2005, from http:// books.nap.edu/html/nses/html/overview.html#content

No Child Left Behind Act, 20 U.S.C. §6301 (2001).

Rogers, K. B. (2005, April). The accountability of education plans for gifted learners. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, QC, Canada.

Roseman, J. E., Kesidou, S., Stern, L., & Caldwell, A. (1999). Heavy books light on learning: AAAS Project 2061 evaluates middle grades science textbooks. Science Books and Films, 35, 243–247.

Rutherford, F. J., & Ahlgren, A. (1990). Science for all Americans. New York: Oxford University Press.

Simpson, R. D., & Oliver, J. S. (1985). Attitudes toward science and achievement motivation profiles of male and female science students in grades six through ten. Science Education, 69, 511–526.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (1993). National excellence: A case for developing America’s talent. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.