The following article has been excerpted from Language Arts for Gifted Students, one of six exciting books in the Gifted Child Today Reader Series. This series brings together the best articles published in Gifted Child Today, the nation's most popular gifted education journal. Each book in the series is filled with exciting and practical classroom ideas, useful summaries of research findings, and discussions of identification and classroom management, and informed opionion about educating gifted children.

Chapter 8

The music guided her through the moonless night and although she was exhausted, she kept on paddling. She was getting near to Mokoia but the cold water had chilled her to the bone and she began to feel very weak. The music sounded faint now but all the same it gave her courage to press on. Suddenly she felt as if she might be within shouting distance of the Island. She put a foot down in the water and touched some waving weed. A minute later she felt solid land and climbed, stiffly, out of the water. (Te Kanawa, 1989, p. 40)

This Maori tale, repeated to her often in her childhood, was recalled by opera singer Kiri Te Kanawa many years and half a world away:

As a child I used to go [to Lake Rotorua] quite often and watch the silver moon shining over the water. It never seemed to be a rough or difficult lake—always rippling. Seeing the island of Mokoia in the middle of it I always picture Hinemoa swimming to her hero, her warrior, Tutaneki, and I always imagine her as a kind of fairy princess. (Te Kanawa, 1989, p. 40)

As a gifted-child-turned-adult, Te Kanawa used words that recall the vivid visual, tactile, and kinesthetic details that drew her imaginatively into Hinemoa’s world, both in retelling the story and in recalling her reaction to it. Her language still flows with the rhythm of the Maori storytellers. The heritage she received from them includes not only gods, demigods, heroes, kings, princesses, fairies, and monsters, but the rhythmic language and vivid imagery with which they were portrayed.

Rhythmic language and vivid imagery can be the heritage of all children, particularly those who are of high ability. Story listening and storytelling are natural media for gifted children, who tend to be both sensitive to language and quick to pick up on imaginative possibilities.

As Renzulli (1992) has stressed, “All cognitive behavior is enhanced as a function of the degree of interest that is present . . . wherever that cognitive behavior may be on the continuum from basic skill learning to higher levels of creative productivity” (p. 173). The excitement and drama of storytelling provides a context that holds students’ attention (Cooter, 1991). In this context, students experience the power of language in unique and captivating ways. Experienced classroom storyteller Olga Nelson (1989) commented that the storytelling experience “gives an appropriate example of how language can be used to make the ordinary unique” with a “wonderful interplay of language, experience, and story” (p. 389). And, the skills and capabilities developed in both language and imagination are on the highest levels of both basic usefulness and creative productivity.

Through listening to stories, students experience the musical and pictorial magic of language; through creating and sharing their own narratives, they learn how this magic can be used to express the stories, feelings, and images in their own creative minds. Polynesian stories will be used as illustrations in this chapter, as the ancient cultures, characters, and narratives are not well-known and children must rely on language and imagination in receiving them. However, it is recommended that stories from a variety of nationalities, cultures, and ethnic groups be included in the ongoing use of storytelling in the classroom. The techniques and activities suggested here can be used in general classrooms or gifted pull-out programs; most can be easily adapted for home use, as well.

After listening to a professional storyteller, a 9-year-old child wrote this poem:

The boring words—
I look at them dragging their feet
But when the exciting marvelous words
Jump out, I dance and sing with them.
(cited in Colwell, 1980)

For a language-sensitive child, words do dance and sing. They sing as the child listens to the tone, the rhythm, the “full range of sounds and silences” (Barton, 1986) the words create. They dance as they convey to the child’s imagination the sensory stimuli that allow him or her to “perceive the ordinary world with an ‘uncommon eye,’” storing impressions from the senses, even crossing between senses to see what is heard and touch what is seen (Khatena, 1979, p. 735).

When the story is told, rather than read, neither the physical barrier of the book nor the imaginative barrier of illustrations come between the face, voice, and words of the teller and the attention and imagination of the listener. In a carefully planned story listening experience, children share with the storyteller both the music of language and the sensory imagery that language can convey.

When a teacher begins a classroom experience with “a certain chief who lived on the island of Oahu in the very misty memory of long, long ago” (Westervelt, 1964, p. 65), the language itself draws children into a story. A storytelling session, like a concert, is a performance; the artist expresses the content through sound, and the audience receives it through the auditory sense. Bob Barton (1986), who has had many years of successful storytelling experiences, explained that “the sound and rhythm of the words are often all part of the meaning” (p. 45).

Just as a child’s ear for music is trained and strengthened by listening to music, a child’s ear for language is strengthened and trained through listening to language (Colwell, 1980). The storytelling experience is one of the most effective ways to help children respond to its rhythm and beauty (Livo & Reitz, 1986). Barton (1986) referred to a distinctive sound for each story, “the special aura that story radiates” (p. 56). Specific sounds, he commented, do or do not “belong” to that story (p. 56). Pacing, pauses, intonation, and even mimicry can be effective (Huntsman, 1990).

Distinctive sounds and sound differences can be easily perceived when ethnic or multicultural stories are used. For example, Polynesian languages are smooth and flowing, as each syllable and each word ends with a vowel, and two consonants are never used in succession without a vowel between them. When Polynesian names are used in a story, they seem to glide as they are pronounced: Kaili-lau-o-kekoa, Ku-leo-nui, Mu-lei-ula, Kaanaelike, or Kamalama. The first man, according to Hawaiian legend, was Wela-ahi-lani-nui (The Great Heaven Burning Hot), and the first woman was Ke-aka-huli-lani (The-Heaven-Changed-Shadow). A storyteller need not be afraid of Polynesian names; they are pronounced just as they are spelled, since written language was brought to the islands and superimposed on an already well-developed oral tongue. All one needs to remember is to emphasize the vowels. The storyteller can talk about the sound of Polynesian words before beginning the story and invite the children to pronounce the names with him or her as they occur. Even in translation, the names are musical and flowing, as they involve multiple expressive words: “Listen to the Heavenly Voice,” “The Covering of the Mekoa Leaf,” “Child Nourished by the Gods,” “Mu With the Red Garland” (Names taken from legends recorded in Rice, 1977; Westervelt, 1964).

A storyteller may use patterns of language structure and imagery, as well as vocabulary, in telling a story, thus introducing children to the characteristic rhythms and melodies these patterns create (Baker & Greene, 1987). Since Polynesian languages developed exclusively in oral form, there are few abstract words; thus, feelings and emotions are often expressed figuratively, especially in personification. The personified item is usually in the subject position, most often near the beginning of the sentence. For example, in “Ulukaa, The Rolling Island,” when a king is washed up on the shore of a floating island, “hunger whispered to him,” and “the king did as hunger bade him.” When he marries the beautiful princess of the island, he exclaims, “Now great happiness dwells with us.” When he dreams of his parents’ heartbreak over his reported death, he is not told “they aren’t sleeping well,” but “sleep comes not often to them;” in fact, “three times the same dream came to him” and “hourly this dream, like an image, haunted him” (Rice, 1977, pp. 20–26). There is a rhythm to this personification that a storyteller can learn and easily recall. It isn’t necessary to memorize the story; by repeating the sentences a number of times, listening for the rhythm and becoming accustomed to the pattern, the storyteller will sense naturally where and how these patterns of meaning and expression should be used.

Where gifted children are generally sensitive to the suggestibility of language, both in sound and in figurative use, the storyteller could make brief comments describing these sound and structure patterns before telling the story, much as a music teacher might talk about style and introduce major themes from a piece of music before playing an orchestral recording. The flow of the words in the story should not be interrupted to explain features of the language. Many storytellers have their listeners repeat and practice key ethnic or native language words before the story begins and then participate by calling the words out or chanting them at specific places during the performance.

A Hawaiian legend describes the destruction of a tree beloved to the goddess Haumea—“‘the tree of changing leaves’ with two flowers, one kind singing sharply, and the other singing from time to time”:

That night a fierce and mighty storm came down from the mountains. Blood-red were the streams of water pouring down into the valleys. During twenty nights and twenty days the angry rain punished the land. . . . The river was more than a rushing torrent. It built up hills and dug ravines. It hurled its mighty waves against the wall inside which the tree stood. It crushed the wall, scattered the stones, and bore the tree down one of the deep ravines. . . .
The body of the tree rolled back and forth along the beach near the four waters, and was wrapped in the refuse of the sea. (Westervelt, 1964, pp. 25–26)

As they experience the way language sounds, children who listen to stories also experience the way language can make them see and feel. It is this blending of auditory and visual capabilities of language that gives storytelling its power; and, in turn, the power of the aesthetic and emotional experience brings to linguistically sensitive children an understanding of the properties of language as a medium. As Sasser and Zorena (1991) expressed it, gifted children who listen to stories experience “the originality and color” of speech.

Bob Barton (1986), a storyteller who performs often for groups of school children, knew he had succeeded when he received a letter from a kindergarten class that told him, “You said the words that helped us think the pictures” (p. 8). In fact, many experienced storytellers comment that the story should enter the listeners’ minds as a series of moving pictures (Barton; Breneman & Breneman, 1983), and that the storyteller can best prepare by learning the story, not as a series of words to recall, but as a sequence of pictures to describe (Cooter, 1991). The storytelling/story listening experience is often referred to as an act of cocreation between the teller and the audience (Baker & Greene, 1987; Breneman & Breneman; Nelson, 1989). Language is the medium by which the pictures are conveyed, and well-chosen language allows the listeners to “actualize the story in their [own] minds” (Nelson, p. 386).

The medium of language contains many raw materials the storyteller can use to invite the cocreation of his or her pictures. Carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs can convey multifaceted pictures; but, it is important to remember that nouns and verbs are the heart of the sentence. Vivid and specific verbs convey visual and occasionally auditory and kinesthetic information. Many words, especially nouns, convey emotions along with the more objective material. Color, texture, taste, smell, and even temperature are involved in sharing adventures and experiences (Chambers, 1977). In addition to the traditional senses, storytellers might consider equilibrium (balance; see Breneman & Breneman, 1983), especially in stories that involve sailing or rowing, struggling physically with an adversary, walking or running in unfamiliar places, or lifting or carrying heavy objects. It is also important to use vivid words that convey organic sensations such as dizziness, hunger, or pain, along with specific words that communicate emotional reactions such as foreboding, surprise, guilt, or anger (see Breneman & Breneman).

Sensory experiences expressed by words are enhanced when those words state or imply a comparison. Analogy adds richness and emotion to any description. Through carefully chosen analogies, a storyteller brings intangible and elusive elements into focus quickly and vividly. As Khatena (1984) expressed it, a “familiar situation to which the thought-feeling complex can be related . . . a process of making the strange familiar or the familiar strange” (pp. 154–155; see also Gordon, 1961; Gowan, 1979). Remembering well-chosen analogies helps a storyteller recall important aspects of the story, and it enhances the language experience for the children. In Hawaiian legends and folklore, people and places are often compared to natural phenomena. For example, in describing the mother of the hero Kana, the storyteller notes, “Her skin was like the sun as it rises, or like the feather of the mamo” (Rice, 1977, p. 107). Another beauty, Kaili-lau-o-kekoa, has cheeks that “glowed like the rising sun” (Rice, p. 117). The goddess Papa is described as “a beautiful woman whose skin shone like polished dark ivory through the flowers and vines and leaves which were the only clothes she knew” (Westervelt, 1964, p. 29).

After the children have heard the story uninterrupted so that they can respond to the power of the language experience, selected passages might be retold. Torrance (1979) recommended repetition of passages one time through strictly for listening and spontaneous response, another specifically for mental pictures, and possibly another for varying personal interpretations. Where gifted children are capable of finding within their language experiences raw material for their own future storytelling and writing, multiple viewing and reexamining could be particularly significant.

This ability to find models in the expression of others makes it essential that gifted children’s experience in storytelling not be limited to listening. As listeners, they cocreate stories told by others, and they must complete the experience by sharing their own stories from the teller’s position. Because storytelling groups will vary from young to more mature, from homogeneous to heterogeneous, from single grade to multiage, the storyteller should develop a repertoire comprising a wide variety of involvement and sharing activities. Such activities should include opportunities for sharing personal expression in a number of modalities, for sharing the joy and excitement of using language creatively, and for new forms of thought and expression generated by the story listening experiences.

In discussing the needs of today’s gifted children, Roberto Assagioli (1987) suggested:

Imagination is of great importance in human life and has more influence than is generally recognized; therefore it should receive particular attention. The training should include exercises of visualization, creative imagination etc., so that young people will gradually learn how to control and rightly use this precious function. (p. 54)

As part of their storytelling participation, gifted children need to give expression to the imaginative impulses that are generated as they listen to stories.

A storytelling circle is an authentic cultural experience that provides such participation opportunities, allowing for variation in ages, ability levels, and dominant and preferred modes of expression. Historically and currently, oral literature has been created and performed in such circles in cultures all over the world. In areas such as the Polynesian islands, dances and songs accompany the stories. Puppetry and other forms of creative dramatics can be part of these gatherings, as well.

Creating oral stories is a natural form of expression for young children’s creativity, as they are freed from the necessity of having to write legibly, spell words correctly, or obey other conventions of writing. The instant feedback they receive from the listeners helps them develop a sense of audience; it also provides a subtle reality check for their communication skills. Brief nature fables, common to a variety of cultures, are simple and fairly easy for young children to create after they have listened to a few examples. Each child could bring from home a natural object such as an interesting stone, flower, leaf, or bird’s nest. Then, in turn, each could show the object and tell the story, having thought out a basic story outline in advance. Children who are less verbally able or less confident than their classmates could practice with their parents in advance.

For children who have entered the phase of the middle elementary years where they enjoy hero stories, a series of stories could be shared by the teacher or guest storyteller centered around a mythic hero, such as Maui of the Polynesians, Loki of the Scandinavians, or Hermes of the Greeks. Then, the children could each add an adventure from their own imaginations. Or, they could create their own class hero for whom each could contribute an adventure. Another variation would be to have each child invent his own personalized hero to star in a new heroic tale. Thus, the stories told in the circle could be created within as much or as little structure as the teacher considers ideal for the specific group.

Children whose talent areas include capabilities other than verbal skills can work with additional modalities to enhance the language experience of the story circle. Drawings or other visual creations are a natural addition, particularly if the children are telling monster tales or other stories in which new kinds of creatures or supernatural beings are invented. For example, in the Maori lore of New Zealand, the taniwha, or human-eating monster, took his shape from the fears of the people. Thus, many noted taniwhas were shaped like lizards, as the ancient Maori had a cultural fear of lizards; however, one of the best-known taniwhas of people who lived near the sea was shaped like a giant sea monster (Anderson, 1928). Children could prepare for the storytelling circle by creating their own taniwhas, with shapes influenced by their own fears. These creations could be drawn, painted, or finger-painted, or they could be created as three-dimensional clay figures or collages. Finding words to describe their visual creations will stimulate the children’s ability to use sensory descriptive language.

Children with talents in music could create and perform songs as part of their participation in the storytelling circle. Instrumental music and dance could be invited, performed either individually or in groups to enhance the effects of the stories. Blending the words with the musical and kinesthetic representations makes the children more aware of the cross-sensory capabilities of language. Inclusion of creative drama or simple puppet performances utilizes an additional dimension of language by requiring students to vary their word choice to represent both characterization and basic narrative action.

Regardless of the complexity of the stories or the addition of other talent modalities, the medium of storytelling is language, and the dominant product is language development. Professional storyteller Dewey Chambers (1977) commented that, through storytelling, children “experience living language, a language that communicates at a level above and beyond that of everyday usage” (p. 45). He explained that “living words can create a world, pose and solve problems, influence emotions, and create images” (p. 45). Gifted children need opportunities to create and share their own worlds and to pose and solve problems that enter their own minds. With a little ingenuity from the teacher, such experiences can become available.

Experienced storytellers Livo and Reitz (1986) suggested that awareness and enjoyment of language can begin with something as simple as riddles and humorous wordplay. Key words from stories the children have heard can generate language games. For example, a professional storyteller who was using ethnic Jewish stories had a multiage group of children enthralled with what they could do with the world schlemiel (D. Richin, personal observation, July 1997).

Keeping the informal atmosphere in which individuality and humor are encouraged, creating simple stories centered around group interaction is a logical next step. As Torrance (1965) has pointed out, creative children need to look for relationships, find new and interesting combinations, and synthesize things that may seem unrelated into new products. Creating new adventures for a favorite character in a story they have already enjoyed (particularly a minor character) allows for new views and combinations of material the group holds in common. Or the children could add a new character to a previously enjoyed adventure (a rival warrior just as handsome as the original chief’s son, a fourth brother questing after the king’s daughter, a jealous sister for the princess). Secondary English teacher W.W. West (1980) suggested giving students five objects to develop into a story. If a group had been listening to folk tales from Polynesia, they might be given a fishing hook, a coconut, a braided mat, a stone, and an egg. As these items are common in the lives of Polynesians, they could generate stories of the natural or supernatural, distant past or present day, chiefs and kings or common people. The teacher could encourage and reinforce variety in the creations, as well as vividness and originality in language. For groups that are younger, multiage, or widely varied in language ability, descriptive words for the objects could be brainstormed to get the children thinking in terms of vivid language, while scaffolding could be provided for those who need it.

For more formal storytelling experiences—for which stories are more painstakingly created and possibly performed for a wider audience—more time, less structure, and fewer distractions would be desirable. Gowan (1979) commented that students’ abilities to generate creative, sensory imagery is increased by reducing outside sensory input and calming “internal verbal chatter” (p. 2). Although the external and internal chatter generated by the informal group activities is helpful in promoting initial enthusiasm and stockpiling raw materials, if students are going to create pieces that will represent their talents and allow them to perform, then they will need personal time and possibly space. Sasser and Zorena (1991) advised that performance is an important aspect of the storytelling experience, that it adds “an element of drama (literally, as well as emotionally)” (p. 44). Thus, it heightens children’s personal involvement in the activities and their awareness of language use.

Once children are finding words to creatively express feelings and sensations, as well as happenings, a logical next step is to develop those sensations and impressions into analogies. According to Khatena (1978) in his writings concerning language and giftedness, analogical thinking is “one of the most potent creative energy sources,” and an individual who is able to think in terms of analogies “stands an excellent chance at being creative, inventive, and a good problem solver” (p. 83). Davis (1989) agreed, commenting that “perhaps the most common and widely used idea-finding technique is deliberate analogical thinking” (p. 83).

Khatena’s (1973) studies have shown that analogies come naturally to gifted children. By examining analogies made by children of varying ages, he found that young children (ages 8–9) make simple direct analogies more frequently than do older children, but older children (ages 12–13) are more inclined to develop their analogies to a complex level. Khatena (1984) suggested that teachers give students a word pool from which they can choose words on which they want to base original analogies. If the words in the pool happen to be key words that have been involved in a storytelling experience, the children already have sensations and associations linked to them, which makes analogies an easy and natural step forward.

Additional activities related to story listening and storytelling experiences can extend the natural interest of the stories into analogy motivation. Because the early Polynesian people lived close to nature and used nature to define their daily thoughts and activities, their stories are filled with analogies. In many stories, the analogy is the center of the tale. Take, for example, the Samoan legend of the two-mouthed sea cucumber. During a battle between the birds and the fish, the sea cucumber cheers enthusiastically for the birds when they are winning and tells them the strategies the fish are planning to use. But, when the fish change their strategies and begin to drive the birds back into the bush, the sea cucumber immediately begins to cheer for the fish. Both the birds and the fish say that the sea cucumber has two mouths—one to talk to the birds and the other to talk to the fish—so he cannot be trusted. The sea cucumber is condemned to live only in shallow places where he can be easily watched, and his two mouths can do little harm (Steubel, Kraemer, & Herman, 1995). Even the youngest children can look at a picture of a sea cucumber and see that it does not really have two mouths. This leads naturally into a discussion of what analogies are and why they are effective in helping people understand and remember abstract ideas such as loyalty and trust.

To reinforce the concept of using the familiar to explore the abstract, the teacher could bring a box or basket of objects and allow each child to choose something to develop into an analogy. For greater variety, a set of pictures of sea creatures, animals, plants, or other objects could be used in a game in which children see how many analogies they can generate individually, in small groups, or as a class. If stories from a particular culture are being told as examples, pictures of nature or artifacts related specifically to that culture could be used. For example, a picture of the peninsula on the Island of Oahu—a land and rock formation shaped like a turtle with just the tip of the tail touching the larger island—could generate a variety of interesting analogies.

Puppets might be furnished by the teacher or created by the children themselves to act as voices for analogies, encouraging children to develop their analogies in more complex directions and in greater detail. Puppets could become the tellers of teaching stories, like that of the sea cucumber; many children tend to experiment more with language and with innovative ideas under the safety of an imaginative persona.

Storyteller Bob Barton (1986) insisted that “Stories are wonderful meeting places” (p. 8). Stories furnish many significant encounters for children with special gifts and talents. As they look into the eyes of a storyteller and hear his or her voice using language to create the world of a story, children encounter the musical and pictorial qualities of language that is used not merely as a daily necessity, but as an art. Khatena (1984) referred to it as “the language of discovery.” With no physical pictures, children learn that language can create mental pictures through which they can explore new worlds and experience new cultures. As they create and share their own stories, children learn to use the properties of language to create new worlds and explore the resources of their own minds. As they use such creative language, “like artists in the act of painting, they give organization and meaning to these images” (Khatena, p. 156). Particular attention should be paid to “how they depict their world, what details they include, the choices they make of colors, the style they choose and the extent to which they allow their emotions to become involved” as concerned with “creative energizing forces at work” (p. 156). In the process, they encounter their own imaginative potential, the fun involved in experimenting and playing with language, and the fascination of extending language play into creative expressions such as analogies. Through listening to stories and creating and telling their own, gifted and creative children meet and explore, through language, both external and internal worlds.

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