The following article has been excerpted from Teaching and Counseling Gifted Girls, one of six exciting books in the Gifted Child Today Reader Series. This series brings together the best articles published in Gifted Child Today, the nation's most popular gifted education journal. Each book in the series is filled with exciting and practical classroom ideas, useful summaries of research findings, and discussions of identification and classroom management, and informed opionion about educating gifted children.

Chapter 9

Jennifer was an A student, not just in mathematics, but in all of her subjects. She was in an accelerated seventh-grade algebra class—the only accelerated class in her suburban middle school. Mathematics had been easy for Jennifer in elementary school. She paid attention in class, did her homework, and excelled in facts and algorithms, but now she was in a class with all of the highest achieving students in her grade, and new concepts were being presented in challenging ways. She could no longer rely upon her memory to complete her assignments and was experiencing confusion and frustration if she did not instantly know the answer or understand the method to solve problems. Meanwhile, other students, especially some of the boys, seemed to call out answers faster and were able to answer the challenging questions posed by the teacher. Jennifer believed that she needed more time to think about these questions. She wasn’t getting that time in her class, and her anxiety about math grew.

Jennifer isn’t alone. Young gifted females may not receive necessary encouragement to achieve in mathematics. An American Association of University Women (AAUW) report (Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, 1992) concluded that “all differences in math performance between girls and boys at ages 11 and 15 could be accounted for by differences among those scoring in the top 10-20%” (p. 25). This means that many of our brightest female mathematics students are not keeping up with their male counterparts. It is clear from this and other research studies discussed in this chapter that many mathematically talented females perform at levels that are not commensurate with their abilities (Reis, 1987; Reis & Callahan, 1989).

However, the situation can be improved, for teachers and parents can implement specific strategies to help talented girls succeed in math.

Jennifer, for example, is at a critical point in her mathematical development. While she wants to please her parents and teachers by excelling in algebra, she is becoming increasingly anxious about mathematics and is afraid she may no longer make the honor roll because of her grades in math. She spends more time on homework, yet she receives fewer A’s than before. Therefore, she needs encouragement from her parents to assure her that B grades are acceptable in accelerated courses. She needs support from her teachers to encourage her to use the time she needs to really think about concepts and to formulate her own foundations of mathematical thinking. She also needs to know that everyone, even mathematicians, experience similar states of discomfort when they encounter challenging content. In fact, mathematical insights and future discoveries often emerge from confusion. If Jennifer is to be successful and remain in this class, her teacher should provide a classroom environment that will help her develop her mathematical abilities and regain her confidence regarding her ability to do advanced work. This environment should nurture creative thinking and encourage risk taking, as well as use alternative assessments, such as mathematics portfolios and creative projects. Jennifer’s teachers can also serve as sources of support who will encourage her strengths and help her overcome her decreasing self-confidence.

Before we can alleviate the problems experienced by girls like Jennifer, it is important to try to understand the factors behind those problems. One of the main reasons that girls do not succeed in mathematics may not be due to any lack of ability or effort; rather, it may attributed to the fact that they are not expected to excel in this area by some of their parents, teachers, or peers.

Stereotypes influence perceptions and performance in school and in life and are often cited as contributing to girls’ problems in math and related fields such as technology. Unfortunately, mathematics is often thought of as a “male” field, and our society holds traditional male images of scientists, engineers, computer scientists, and mathematicians. Society’s influence is also demonstrated in the development of software for student use. Software continues to be geared toward male interests, with males being the heroes in 63% of the software examined in one study (Nelson & Watson, 1991). Not only is there a need for software in which girls will have an interest, but also girls’ interests need to be expanded so that gender-based stereotypes are not reinforced (Sanders, 1994).

Evidence also exists that girls are regarded as less capable in mathematics by some of their teachers and parents, and these perceptions may influence girls’ opinions of their own abilities. For example, Kissane (1986) found that teachers were less accurate in nominating girls who are likely to do well on the quantitative subtest of the SAT than they were in naming boys who were likely to score high. Siegle and Reis (1994) found that adolescent female gifted students indicated that they had higher abilities than males in language arts only, while male gifted students indicated they had higher abilities than females in mathematics, science, and social studies.

It is important to examine beliefs because they influence actions. For example, current data indicate that, of the 11,793 students who took the AP Computer Science A exam, only 1,959 (17%) were female. On the more extensive or more difficult AP Computer Science AB exam taken by 6,450 students, only 611 (9%) were female. Men comprised the vast majority of test takers, as 91% of those taking either test were male. Looking at the implications of this at the local level, Henry and Manning (1998) reported that only one girl was enrolled in the math class entitled “Introduction to Computer” at a particular high school during the 1998 academic year, and no girls were enrolled in “Advanced Computer.”

In her review of the literature on women’s mathematics achievement, Kimball (1989) found that, while standardized test scores still favor boys, grade differences favor girls. The pattern of performance on standardized aptitude assessment measures is also very different from the pattern of grades. While males’ mean scores on both the verbal and math sections of the 1996 SAT were higher than females’, the females who took the test had a higher mean high school grade point average: 3.27 overall, versus 3.11 for males (Educational Testing Service, 1996).

How does this affect gifted females in particular? Rosser (1989) reported that the higher the grades, the greater the gender gap: “Girls with an A+ grade point average averaged 23 points lower on the SAT-Verbal section (9 points lower than the overall verbal M/F gap) and 60 points lower on the SAT-Mathematics section than boys with the same GPA” (p. iv). Also, we cannot discount the influence of societal expectations and the media discussion of SAT scores on the confidence level of females as they enter the classroom to take the exam. Do they have a mindset that they will not do well on these tests? If so, how much does this affect their performance? This is worthy of further examination.

Kimball (1989) made a fascinating point about the ways that we currently measure mathematics achievement: “Although there is ample evidence of young women’s superior math achievement when grades are used to measure achievement, they have not been considered seriously in the literature on mathematics achievement. I am proposing that it is important to begin to take them seriously” (p. 203). Kimball suggested that classroom grades reflect what is learned during a particular class and should not be influenced by other experiences outside of, or prior to, the classroom experience. Also, the information that girls are not at a disadvantage and, in fact, have a grade advantage in many courses may be useful in increasing girls’ confidence in their mathematics ability.

Many gifted females continue to reject mathematics and directly related fields such as computer science and engineering as courses of study. Using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), a 10-year data collection project sponsored by the U.S. Government, Gavin (1997) examined a cohort of approximately 1,400 high-mathematics-ability students. As seniors in 1992, these students were surveyed to determine their intended fields of study in college. Although all students had been identified as having high mathematics ability, only 27% expressed interest in a mathematics or science major, with only 1.8% intending to major in mathematics. The numbers for females were quite revealing: only 9 (0.7%) selected computer science, 46 (3.3%) engineering, 19 (1.4%) mathematics, and 27 (2%) physical science. Examining data on intended majors for females who took the SAT in 1996, of those intending to major in engineering, only 19% were female, and in computer or information sciences, just 25% (Educational Testing Service, 1996). These remarkably low percentages of career interest in mathematics and science occur despite data cited earlier suggesting that females receive consistently higher grades in elementary school, secondary school, and in college-related subjects.

Although much attention has been given to research studies that have reported equal numbers of males and females declaring mathematics as their major field of study, it is important to study those who actually graduate with a mathematics major and pursue a mathematics career. While equal numbers of males and females start with the mathematics major, females comprise 43% of those completing the undergraduate major and only 20% of those completing the doctoral degree (Linn & Kessel, 1995). With respect to females who are minorities, the numbers are extremely low. Of the 1,209 mathematics Ph.D. degrees awarded in 1995-96, only 2 went to Black women and 1 was earned by a Hispanic female (National Science Foundation, 1996). In terms of related fields, an examination of the distribution of the doctoral degrees awarded in 1992 revealed that women were awarded 16% of the degrees in computer science, 11% of the degrees in physics, and 8% of the engineering degrees (National Science Foundation, 1992). And, while the number of women in the life sciences fields has grown steadily since the early 1970s, the participation of women in physics and engineering reached a plateau at about 15% and has remained at this level for the past decade (Campbell, 1996). In fact, although women presently comprise 43% of the workforce, they make up only 10% of all engineers and 28% of mathematical and computer scientists (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999). Especially alarming is the high-paying area of technology, where men dominate the field, making up 70% of the high-tech labor force. The percentage of female computer professionals has actually decreased from 35.4 to 29.1% in the 1990s (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999).

In today’s technologically driven society, the need for workers in fields requiring mathematics and science backgrounds is constantly increasing. We must encourage more females to enter the field of mathematics. We have failed in our efforts to do this in the past. Research has consistently demonstrated the critical role of teachers in encouraging girls in mathematics. For example, Leroux and Ho (1994), in a qualitative study of 15 gifted female high school students, concluded:

Female math teachers who act as role models are significant influences. Teachers who treat both genders equally, provide a warm, uninhibiting environment, and are approachable seem to provide the most “psychologically safe” environment that is conducive to girls learning. (p. 45)

Demonstrating the kinds of effects that teachers can have on students, Rogers (1990), in a study of high-ability students, found that significant success in attracting females to higher level mathematics courses was achieved by teachers, either male or female, who created a classroom environment open and supportive of all students, one in which the teacher’s style was conducive to the nature of mathematical inquiry. Gavin (1996) found that almost half of the female mathematics majors at a competitive college attributed their decision to major in mathematics to the influence of a high school teacher. In fact, one third of the students developed and maintained a personal relationship with these teachers throughout their college years. Confirming this at the graduate level, Becker (1994) conducted in-depth interviews with 31 graduate students and found that a successful teacher was frequently described as one who piqued students’ interests by providing an enriched curriculum. She concluded that teachers and instruction could make a difference in all students’ career choices.

The following strategies have been suggested by experts and shown to be effective in encouraging young girls in mathematics (Campbell 1992; Hanson, 1992). They can be implemented fairly easily and quickly.

1. Teachers should consider their own feelings about mathematics and how these feelings might affect their teaching and students. If a teacher does not like mathematics, has ambivalent feelings toward the subject, or a genuine fear of it, he or she may inadvertently be transferring some of these feelings to students. Fear or dislike of math may clearly be reflected in preferences for the curriculum covered in the gifted program and in the types of materials in the program. Gifted programs at the elementary level often focus on language arts, which reflects the strength of the teacher. However, it is imperative that the focus be shifted from the teacher to the student. The strengths and interests of the students should be identified and nurtured in gifted programs, and teachers must seek out resources to develop appropriate programs.

2. Assume personal responsibility to encourage talented females in mathematics. Adolescent girls who are talented in mathematics may receive mixed messages from parents, their peer group, and society in general. They need specific support to help them believe that they are truly talented in mathematics and to encourage them to continue to pursue these areas in high school, college, and beyond.

   Teachers who try to encourage talented girls may believe that they should help their students solve problems. However, strategies such as giving extra help may be detrimental to females’ sense of self-confidence. Rather, teachers should encourage students to persist in seeking their own solutions. For example, they should answer questions with a question, giving hints, but not solutions. They must have high expectations for girls, let them know it, and praise them for being able to solve challenging problems.

   Teachers must also be aware that females who are talented in mathematics are often talented in other academic areas, as well. Without encouragement to pursue their talent in these areas, they often choose other more female-oriented fields. Teachers must make parents aware of the need to support their daughters’ talents in mathematics. In school, older girls taking Advanced Placement courses can be asked to come and talk to younger students to encourage them to participate in these courses. At every stage, all opportunities should remain available to talented female students. They should be encouraged to enroll in and complete advanced mathematics and computer classes.

3. Create a safe, caring, and supportive learning environment. Eccles (1987) drew several conclusions from the existing literature about mathematics and science teachers who have been successful in reversing stereotypes and keeping females interested in mathematics. She noted a pattern of conditions in these classrooms, including:
   • frequent use of cooperative learning opportunities,
   • frequent individualized learning opportunities,
   • use of practical problems in assignments,
   • frequent use of hands-on opportunities,
   • active career and educational guidance,
   • infrequent use of competitive motivational strategies,
   • frequent activities oriented toward broadening views of mathematics and physical sciences,
   • presenting mathematics as a tool in solving problems, and
   • frequent use of strategies to ensure full class participation.
   
   It is important to point out the similarity of these curricular and instructional practices to those recommended by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) in their Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. In fact, these are the kinds of practices touted by the leaders in mathematics education as being essential for all students.

   We translate these research findings into practical ideas for the classroom with the following suggestions. All girls, especially adolescents, need classrooms in which they will be heard and understood and where they can discuss ideas before coming to conclusions. The teacher should provide a setting where students are not permitted to call out answers randomly and where there is plenty of think time—periods of uncontested silence that may encourage students to become more willing to share their thinking with others. Teachers should not rush to provide closure to a lesson, for a mulling period is often essential for talented girls studying advanced topics. An effective strategy is the think-pair-share technique in which, after time for private thought, students share their answers with a neighbor and then with the entire class. The paired discussion lends credibility to their thinking, fosters mathematical communication, and develops a sense of confidence.

   Teachers should also become personally aware of the additional attention they sometimes give to boys. It is hard to deny a waving hand or someone calling out, but increased attention, even negative attention, can reinforce behaviors. Girls need equal attention, and, to ensure that teachers provide it, peer observations can be established with colleagues. Using this technique, a teacher observes a peer’s class and tallies the number of times girls and boys are called on. One way that some teachers address the issue of classroom equality is simply to alternate between calling on males and females in class.

   Some current research indicates that girls tend to thrive in small-group work, especially all-female groups. In coed groups, boys may dominate, becoming the leaders and monopolizing the discussion, while girls become the recorders of the discussion. This is especially true in computer work. Boys have been found to monopolize computers even in preschool (Nelson & Watson, 1991). When boys and girls are paired together at the computer, research has found that a girl will defer to her partner’s wishes (Martin & Murchie-Beyma, 1992; Volman, 1997). Current research indicates that, by the third or fourth grade, girls are less technologically oriented (Nelson & Watson). Boys are at least three times more likely than girls to be involved with computers during the secondary and postsecondary years (Kramer & Lehman, 1990). Thus, it is important that girls be given the opportunity to work individually on computers or, when working in pairs, be given a decision-making role and time for hands-on computer use.

   Opportunities for students to reflect in writing about their ideas and fears about mathematics can also be provided in a safe and supportive class. A comment box enables students to drop a note about their feelings or their understanding of the content of the daily mathematics lesson, including questions they have and related topics they would like to pursue. E-mail also provides the opportunity for students to contact the teacher with questions or concerns.

   Feelings can also be addressed in creative journal assignments, including mathematics metaphors as suggested by Buerk and Gibson (1994). A sample assignment might be the following: “If mathematics were a food (color, animal, etc.), it would be . . . and why?” The results can quickly foster communication and provide information about personal feelings. Journals can also be used to encourage communication about mathematical concepts and offer talented students a way to bring deeper understanding and new insight to areas they wish to pursue. Girls may often enjoy the intimate student-teacher dialogue created by the journal-writing process. An outgrowth of this experience could be the creation of discussion groups at lunch or afterschool clubs in which girls can discuss their feelings and explore interesting mathematics topics.

4. Provide some single-sex learning opportunities in mathematics. There has been a renewed interest in single sex schools and classes for girls, although the research results on the effects of the single-sex environment have been quite contradictory, leaving one with what Gill (1996) referred to as “a now-you-see-it-now-you-don’t effect that is both tantalizing and frustrating.” However, researchers agree that there seems to be a qualitative difference in the single-sex class environment that makes many girls prefer it to a coed classroom.

   In her studies of middle school girls, Streitmatter (1997) found that girls were more likely to ask and answer questions in single-sex math classrooms and that the girls-only setting enhanced their ability to learn and was overwhelmingly preferred. The single-sex setting seems especially useful in mathematics, where females’ self-esteem is traditionally lower. All girls’ math classes are being experimented with throughout the United States. Although some districts have been concerned with legal ramifications, other districts have found that if all-boys classes are also offered or if boys are given the opportunity to take the classes designed for girls (few want this option), then this does not present a problem. In fact, Gavin and Shmurak (1999) found that, in an urban middle school setting, the boys in single-sex classes benefited the most by making significant gains on state mathematics mastery test scores when compared with their counterparts in coed classes.

   Math clubs for girls, computer camps for girls, and summer math programs for girls such as SummerMath at Mount Holyoke College are all empowering ways for females to explore mathematics in nonthreatening environments. Some girls, especially at the upper elementary and middle school levels, feel intimidated by the male dominance in competitive math leagues such as Math Olympiad and MathCounts; yet, these leagues provide talented students with challenging mathematical problems and a forum for teachers and peers to recognize mathematical talent. Some teachers have created all-female Math Olympiad and MathCounts teams that have worked well (Volpe, 1999). Establishing clubs for girls as afterschool or activity-period alternatives also gives girls the freedom to confront math anxiety, if it exists, and to delve into complex problems in a friendly environment (Karp & Niemi, 2000). Female role models in various math-related professions can be guest speakers at the club meetings, and field trips taken to explore career options may inspire a budding mathematician.

   A word of caution is necessary. It is important to remember that it is the nurturing environment provided by the teacher that makes these single-sex settings work. An AAUW roundtable of experts concluded that a single-sex classroom with a sexist teacher is just as detrimental as a coed classroom with the same type of teacher (Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, 1998).

5. Appeal to the strengths of females as motivators. During middle school and usually continuing through their adolescent years, mathematically talented females exhibit great attention to detail in their work, strong organizational skills, and, for some, a sophisticated level of maturity. These skills can be used to motivate girls’ interest in mathematics.

   One way to do this is by encouraging them to organize a Family Math Night (EQUALS, 1989) at the elementary school for parents and children to engage in fun mathematics activities. The girls choose activities for the evening, issue invitations, and set up and actually run the entire event (under the auspices of a teacher or mentor). Tutoring younger children and organizing mathematics clubs or Saturday enrichment programs also encourages and empowers talented adolescent females.

   Some research evidence indicates that classes emphasizing competition result in higher achievement for males and classrooms that encourage cooperation result in higher achievement for females (Peterson & Fennema, 1985). However, these results may not always apply to some females who are mathematically talented. In a qualitative study of female mathematics majors enrolled in a highly selective women’s college, Gavin (1996) found that these young women had actually enjoyed competition in their high school classrooms, especially when it involved males. Similarly, when Hernandez Garduño (1997) investigated gifted females’ and males’ achievement and attitudes about advanced math, she found that talented girls liked fast-paced competitive classes and disliked cooperative learning situations that held them back.

   The implications of these research results indicate that teachers need to recognize that all females are not alike and have different learning styles. They need to observe the females in their class and be especially aware of the needs of the talented females, some of whom may break the mold. They should provide some competitive, some cooperative, and some individual learning situations and allow choice whenever possible so as to maximize student interest and learning.

   Other research indicates that boys like to experiment and tinker, while girls are more goal-oriented in school and feel that tinkering may be a waste of time (Martin & Murchie-Beyma, 1992). Because some girls have been socialized to play more often with dolls, rather than blocks, and to read books, rather than tinker with fixing their bicycles, they may need more time to work with manipulatives. They may also need in-class time to build models, to see how things work, and to develop their sense of spatial relationships.

   The activity Cooperative Geometry (EQUALS, 1986) is another excellent example of group work with manipulatives that develops spatial thinking and encourages a true cooperative problem-solving spirit. The extensions are especially challenging for talented elementary and middle school students. Equally good for upper elementary and middle school students is the unit “Ruins of Montarek” from the new NSF-funded mathematics series, Connected Mathematics Program (Lappan, Fey, Fitzgerald, Friel, & Phillips, 1998). In this unit, Emily Hawkins, a famous explorer and adventurer, investigates the ancient ruins of the lost city of Montarek by making models of buildings from the clues found at the ruins. Another investigation that features a female role model is an episode from the Jasper Woodbury series (Learning Technology Center, 1996) entitled “The Right Angle.” In this episode, a young Native American female searches for a treasure left to her by her grandfather. Students work cooperatively using maps and compasses to locate the treasure.

6. Use language, problems, and activities that are relevant to girls. Damarin (1990) examined traditional mathematics vocabulary and found that it reflects a strong male influence. The language contains goals of mastery and mathematical power. We teach students to attack problems and our instructional strategies include drill and competitions. She believes that, instead of talking about working toward mastery, teachers should talk about internalization of concepts. Instead of attacking problems, students should be encouraged to interact with them, sharing problems, and working cooperatively toward solutions.

   Rather than focusing mainly on activities relating to football yardage, baseball statistics, and housing construction, teachers should also consciously incorporate problems and activities that girls enjoy. Problems dealing with endangered species, recycling, the spread of disease, population growth, and quilting have proven to be excellent suggestions. Activities involving patterns such as tangrams, paper folding, and tessellations and those involving art such as making mobiles, origami, computer graphics, and scale drawings may also appeal to many girls.

7. Create a challenging curriculum. Teachers must encourage talented females to seek challenging opportunities when studying mathematics. Moving students beyond the familiar with ideas that stretch the mind should be a major goal of a program for all talented students, including females. From elementary school exposure to topics such as different numeration systems, the Fibonacci Numbers, and nonroutine problem solving, to secondary school study of non-Euclidean geometry, fractals, chaos theory, and combinatorics, students need to struggle with a change of mindset and relish this struggle, for it fosters a deep, intimate, and broadened understanding of mathematics.

   In designing curricula for talented females, teachers should include a variety of alternative assessments. As some talented females may not do their best thinking during timed tests, other options will enable them to demonstrate their knowledge and competencies. Independent and small-group projects provide an ideal medium to showcase talent. These projects should go beyond a typical term paper and should focus on investigative activities in which students assume the role of firsthand inquirers—thinking, feeling, and acting like practicing professionals. In the Enrichment Triad Model (Renzulli, 1977), student products are used as the vehicle to develop research skills and provide an opportunity to use authentic methodology. This is an excellent opportunity to entice girls to use technology as an effective tool for advanced research, especially in gathering and analyzing data.

   The report Tech Savvy: Educating Girls in the New Computer Age (Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, 2000) makes it clear that the reason girls are not represented well in computer classes is that they are critical of the computer culture, rather than the mistaken belief that they are computer phobic. Using technology to support interesting, independent projects is one way for females to realize the usefulness of computers. These projects are most effective when they are primarily directed toward bringing about a desired impact on an audience, whether it be fellow students, administrators, town officials, mathematicians, or senior citizens. The teacher functions as a facilitator, pointing the student in the direction of resource people and materials as needed or providing direction in learning methodology to conduct the investigation. Some examples of these projects might include contacting local community officials for needed surveying or design projects, such as a population survey or a statistical analysis on the use of current library facilities or an energy audit of the town hall using mathematical analysis with recommendations to the town council for improved efficiency. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics addenda series book, Data Analysis and Statistics Across the Curriculum, Grades 9-12 (1992), is an excellent resource for long and short-term projects with timelines and evaluation criteria.

   With the increased use of block scheduling at the middle and high school level, another means for offering challenging and interesting mathematics to students is the use of enrichment clusters. Enrichment clusters are groups of students who share common interests and who come together during designated time blocks to pursue these interests (Renzulli, 1994). Single-sex enrichment groups can provide an increased sense of confidence for females. During these extended time periods, students can pursue mutual mathematical interests together. For example, they might study fractals using computer models and decide to create programs that generate original fractal pieces. Or, they might gather to start a Young Architects’ Guild focusing on learning about architectural design. Using this knowledge, they may decide to create a play space for children at a local preschool or redesign a veterinarian’s office space for more efficient use. Again, the teacher acts as a guide and the students are empowered to discover math and see its relevance in the real world. They learn to value mathematics and, hopefully, become inspired to continue study and pursue a mathematically related career.

8. Provide female role models and mentors. Many teachers understand that some girls have unique ways of connecting to people. Teachers should capitalize on this and include an historical perspective in their mathematics curriculum to help students become aware of both the people and the creative processes behind mathematics. The lives of mathematicians, their interests in the subject, and how they created their mathematical discoveries will help young female students to appreciate the creative process, as well as the difficulties faced in getting new theories accepted. It is interesting to discover that concepts as basic as the notion of zero, irrational numbers, and negative numbers were quite controversial when first presented and were adopted only with great difficulty.

   The names of the female mathematicians—Hypatia, Marie Agnesi, Sophie Germain, Evelyn Boyd Granville, Sonya Kovalevskaya, and Mary Somerville, among others—are usually not recognized by boys or girls. Teachers can make these women come alive by celebrating their birthdays, hanging their portraits on bulletin board displays, and encouraging females to perform autobiographical skits dressed in their period costumes. Videotaped interviews conducted between student reporters and a remarkable woman who has suddenly come back to life in the 21st century can also be effective. This provides a creative twist to the historical perspective that appeals to some talented females.

   Role models need not all be historical; examples of women currently working in mathematics and related fields—Ph.D. mathematicians, computer scientists, astronauts, engineers, physicists, astronomers, and so on—can be presented, as well. The Internet is an exciting medium for students that allows them to enter into dialogue with these professionals.

   A rewarding experience for teachers, as well as girls, is organizing and participating in a career day in mathematics, science, and technology. At these conferences, which are generally held for girls in middle or high school, female professionals conduct hands-on workshop sessions with girls, interacting with them and exposing them to actual on-the-job activities that spark career interest in girls. It is exciting and rewarding to visit these sessions and observe girls listening to a dog’s heartbeat with a veterinarian, performing a chemical test on local river water with an environmental engineer, or trying to determine car insurance rates for teenage girls with an actuary. An association that can assist teachers in planning these days is Expanding Your Horizons, Math-Science Network, located at 2727 College Ave., Berkeley, CA 94705.

   We have conducted several of these career days at the University of Connecticut and found that, in addition to the hands-on workshops, panels of professional women are also effective and allow a greater variety of careers to be represented. To enliven these panels and encourage interaction between the women and the often shy female students, we highly recommend using the “Tool Clues” activity designed by EQUALS. In this activity, female professionals provide bags of “tools” used in their careers, and students, working in groups, try to guess their profession using a 20-question format.

   One of the greatest benefits from these interactions with professional women is the opportunity for establishing mentorship and internship programs. Participating in these programs gives mathematically talented females the opportunity to work directly with a female role model in a high-level mathematics-related career position.

Far fewer females than males major in mathematics and pursue careers in mathematics and related fields. It is our responsibility to try to make high-tech, high paying professional careers equally available to all students. As pointed out in this chapter, few talented students of either sex indicate an interest in majoring in mathematics. The majority of the strategies we have suggested above are of the type recommended not only for girls, but also for all students by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) in their Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. These strategies and activities focus on constructivist, discovery-oriented learning as the key to building mathematical confidence and understanding in all students.

So, in reality, promoting equality in the classroom is also promoting good teaching techniques, developing student problem-solving abilities, and instilling a genuine appreciation for mathematics. Only the wider use of these strategies will provide answers to questions about how we can continue to recruit the number of talented people we need into careers in mathematical areas in the future. What should be clear to all of us is that too few talented females regard a career involving mathematics as an attainable goal, and it is vitally important to encourage and support more females to pursue this area of study in the future.

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Portions of this chapter have been excerpted or paraphrased from Work Left Undone: Choices & Compromises of Talented Females, by S. M. Reis, 1998, Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press. Copyright ©1998 by Creative Learning Press. Used with permission.